Scooters electric dockless carbon emissions study life cycle analysis examines the environmental footprint of these rapidly growing personal transportation vehicles. From the manufacturing of components to end-of-life disposal, this study delves into every stage of a dockless scooter’s journey to assess its overall carbon impact. Understanding these emissions is crucial for evaluating the true sustainability of this emerging mode of transport.
This analysis considers various factors including material sourcing, manufacturing processes, user behavior, charging infrastructure, and end-of-life considerations. It also explores the potential for alternative power sources and technologies to mitigate environmental harm. The study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the environmental implications of dockless electric scooters, helping to inform policy decisions and drive innovation towards more sustainable solutions.
Introduction to Electric Scooters and Dockless Systems
Electric scooters, once a niche novelty, have exploded in popularity, transforming urban landscapes and transportation options. Their rapid rise is largely due to their convenience, affordability, and perceived environmental friendliness. This surge has brought about a new era of dockless mobility, challenging traditional transportation models and prompting a comprehensive evaluation of their impact.The proliferation of electric scooters has significantly altered the urban mobility landscape.
Their ease of use, compact design, and often affordable pricing have attracted users across demographics. The accessibility offered by dockless systems has particularly impacted urban centers, creating new opportunities for short-distance travel and fostering a sense of freedom.
Different Types of Electric Scooter Designs
Electric scooters come in various designs, each tailored to specific needs and preferences. Compact models are often favored for navigating crowded urban environments, prioritizing maneuverability and ease of storage. More powerful models with longer ranges are designed for longer commutes or off-road use. Specialized designs, like those featuring suspension systems, are aimed at improving comfort and handling on uneven terrain.
Dockless System Business Models
Dockless electric scooter services operate under various business models. Many rely on a subscription or pay-per-use approach, making scooters readily available for individual trips. Some models focus on partnerships with businesses or municipalities, creating dedicated zones or integrating the scooters into existing transportation networks. The competitive landscape often involves price wars and innovative promotional strategies to attract users.
Environmental Concerns
Despite their popularity, electric scooters have associated environmental concerns. The production and disposal of the lithium-ion batteries, critical components, raise concerns regarding resource depletion and potential environmental pollution. The lifecycle analysis, however, is evolving, and research is continuously exploring more sustainable manufacturing practices.
Key Components of a Dockless Electric Scooter System
| Component | Description |
|---|---|
| Electric Motor | Provides propulsion for the scooter, drawing power from the battery. High efficiency motors minimize energy loss. |
| Battery Pack | Stores electrical energy to power the motor. Lithium-ion batteries are common, offering high energy density but with concerns about lifespan and disposal. |
| Controller | Manages the flow of power between the battery and the motor, regulating speed and acceleration. Advanced controllers optimize battery life and provide safety features. |
| Frame and Chassis | Provides structural support for the scooter, housing the components. Lightweight materials like aluminum are often used for enhanced performance. |
| Wheels and Tires | Enable the scooter to move and provide traction. Various tire types cater to different riding conditions. |
| Brakes | Ensure safe stopping mechanisms, with regenerative braking systems recovering some energy during deceleration. |
| App Interface | Enables user interaction with the scooter, including unlocking, location tracking, and payment processing. |
| Charging Infrastructure | Facilitates battery charging, either through dedicated stations or user-operated charging. Optimal charging infrastructure is crucial for efficient operation. |
Carbon Emissions Lifecycle Analysis Methodology
Unveiling the environmental footprint of dockless electric scooters requires a meticulous examination of their entire life cycle. This involves tracing the emissions from the raw material extraction to the end-of-life disposal of the scooter. Understanding the various stages and the methods for measuring emissions at each step is crucial for effective policymaking and innovation in sustainable transportation.A comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) provides a systematic framework for evaluating the environmental impacts of a product or system throughout its entire lifespan.
For electric scooters, this includes the energy consumption during manufacturing, the emissions from battery production, the operational emissions during use, and the environmental burdens from disposal. The goal is to quantify the overall carbon footprint and identify areas for improvement.
Stages of a Life Cycle Assessment for Electric Scooters
Understanding the complete journey of an electric scooter, from material sourcing to eventual disposal, is vital. This involves several interconnected stages, each contributing to the overall environmental impact. These stages include:
- Material Extraction and Processing: This stage encompasses the mining and processing of raw materials used in the scooter’s construction, such as metals (aluminum, steel), plastics, and components. Quantifying the emissions associated with these processes, including transportation and refining, is crucial for evaluating the initial environmental impact.
- Manufacturing and Assembly: This stage involves the assembly of scooter components and the manufacturing of the scooter’s frame, motor, battery, and other parts. Emission factors from energy consumption in factories, transportation of parts, and industrial processes are key to understanding the environmental burden of this phase.
- Battery Production: Battery production is a significant contributor to the scooter’s life-cycle emissions. This includes the extraction of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and other minerals, their processing, and the manufacturing of the battery cells. Assessing the energy intensity of these processes and the associated emissions is paramount.
- Scooter Operation: This stage covers the scooter’s use by consumers. The electricity used to charge the battery significantly impacts the operational emissions. Factors like the electricity source (renewable vs. fossil fuel-based) and the usage patterns of the scooter need to be considered.
- End-of-Life Management: The disposal of the scooter, including battery recycling, significantly impacts the life cycle. Appropriate recycling methods and the potential for harmful material release must be assessed to understand the long-term impact.
Methods for Measuring and Quantifying Carbon Emissions
Accurate quantification of carbon emissions at each stage is essential for a meaningful LCA. Different methodologies are used to assess emissions depending on the stage of the life cycle.
- Emission Factors: Emission factors are pre-calculated values that represent the average emissions per unit of activity (e.g., kilograms of CO2 equivalent per kilowatt-hour of electricity). These factors are crucial for estimating emissions from various processes.
- Input-Output Analysis: This method traces the flow of materials and energy through the entire life cycle. By considering the emissions associated with the production of each input, the overall emissions can be calculated. This method helps account for indirect emissions.
- Life Cycle Inventory (LCI): An LCI is a detailed accounting of all inputs and outputs associated with a product or process throughout its life cycle. It provides a comprehensive dataset for calculating emissions at each stage. Examples include specific energy consumption figures for the manufacturing process.
Comparison of LCA Methodologies
Different LCA methodologies offer varying levels of detail and accuracy. For dockless electric scooter systems, it’s crucial to consider the complexity of the system, including user behavior and charging infrastructure.
- Simplified vs. Detailed Methodologies: A simplified approach may focus on major stages and use readily available emission factors, whereas a detailed approach might involve more complex input-output analysis.
- Regional Variations: Local electricity mix and industrial practices significantly influence the carbon footprint. Methodologies must account for regional variations to provide accurate results.
- Data Availability: The availability of accurate data for different stages and regions impacts the level of detail achievable in the LCA.
Framework for a Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric Scooter
A comprehensive framework for LCA should include the following steps:
- Goal Definition: Clearly define the scope and objectives of the assessment, including specific environmental impacts to be considered.
- Inventory Analysis: Quantify all inputs and outputs at each stage of the life cycle, including energy consumption, material flows, and emissions.
- Impact Assessment: Translate the inventory data into environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions, resource depletion, and pollution.
- Interpretation: Analyze the results to identify the most significant contributors to the environmental impact and pinpoint areas for improvement.
Input Factors Considered in a Life Cycle Assessment
A wide range of factors influence the environmental impact of electric scooters. Consideration of these input factors ensures a comprehensive analysis.
| Category | Input Factors |
|---|---|
| Material Properties | Material type, composition, and energy intensity of extraction and processing |
| Manufacturing Processes | Energy consumption, waste generation, and emissions during assembly |
| Battery Production | Energy intensity, raw material extraction, and battery chemistry |
| Operational Use | Electricity source, usage patterns, and charging infrastructure |
| End-of-Life Management | Recycling rates, disposal methods, and potential environmental risks |
Electric Scooter Manufacturing and Supply Chain: Scooters Electric Dockless Carbon Emissions Study Life Cycle Analysis
Electric scooters, a rapidly growing mode of personal transportation, offer a convenient alternative to cars and public transport in urban areas. However, the environmental impact of their production and use is a critical factor to consider. This section delves into the materials, suppliers, manufacturing processes, and overall supply chain of electric scooters, examining the energy consumption and potential environmental consequences.
Materials Used in Electric Scooter Production
The production of electric scooters relies on a variety of materials, each with its own environmental footprint. Key materials include aluminum alloys for frames, plastics for casings and components, lithium-ion batteries for power, and various metals for motors and controllers. The sourcing and processing of these materials can significantly impact the environmental performance of the final product. For instance, aluminum production is energy-intensive, and the extraction of lithium for batteries can involve significant environmental risks.
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Major Suppliers and Manufacturers of Electric Scooter Components
Several companies dominate the supply chain for electric scooter components. These include manufacturers of battery cells, motor controllers, and display units. For example, CATL, LG Chem, and Panasonic are key suppliers of lithium-ion battery cells, while companies like Bosch and Siemens produce advanced motor controllers. Understanding the relationships between these manufacturers and the scooter assemblers is vital for assessing the overall environmental performance of the production process.
Energy Consumption Patterns in Electric Scooter Manufacturing, Scooters electric dockless carbon emissions study life cycle analysis
The manufacturing process of electric scooters consumes significant amounts of energy at different stages. This includes energy used in the extraction, processing, and transportation of raw materials, as well as the energy required for the assembly line operations. The energy intensity of different stages varies, with battery production typically being one of the most energy-intensive. The type of energy source used by these manufacturers significantly impacts the carbon footprint of the scooters.
Environmental Impacts of Sourcing Materials and Manufacturing Processes
The sourcing of materials and manufacturing processes can have substantial environmental impacts. Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, waste generation during manufacturing, and potential pollution from various stages of the production process must be considered. For example, the extraction of raw materials, like lithium, often results in habitat destruction and water pollution. The disposal of electronic waste, which includes batteries, also presents environmental concerns.
Supply Chain Stages and Environmental Footprints
| Supply Chain Stage | Environmental Footprint |
|---|---|
| Raw Material Extraction (e.g., lithium mining) | High potential for habitat destruction, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. |
| Material Processing (e.g., aluminum smelting) | Significant energy consumption and potential for air pollution. |
| Component Manufacturing (e.g., motor production) | Energy consumption, waste generation, and potential for chemical emissions. |
| Assembly and Transportation | Energy consumption, transportation emissions, and packaging waste. |
| Product Use | Greenhouse gas emissions from operation and potential for battery disposal issues. |
The table above highlights the different stages of the electric scooter supply chain and the associated environmental impacts. This illustrates the need for a comprehensive approach to assess the entire lifecycle of the product, from raw material extraction to end-of-life disposal. A detailed analysis of each stage can reveal areas for improvement and help in developing more sustainable production methods.
Scooter Usage and User Behavior
Riding dockless electric scooters has become a popular mode of transportation in many urban areas. Understanding how these scooters are used, the factors influencing usage, and the associated environmental impact is crucial for assessing their overall sustainability. This section delves into the patterns of scooter usage, rider profiles, the role of charging infrastructure, and how user behavior can be optimized to reduce the carbon footprint of this transportation option.
Average Usage Patterns and Rider Profiles
Dockless electric scooter usage exhibits distinct patterns. Many riders use them for short, local trips, often within a few kilometers. Trips longer than 10 kilometers are less common. Typical riders are younger adults, though usage is not limited to this demographic. Factors such as commuting needs, recreational purposes, and social activities influence the frequency and duration of scooter rides.
These patterns have a direct impact on the overall energy consumption and emissions produced.
Impact of Charging Infrastructure
The availability and accessibility of charging infrastructure significantly affect scooter usage. Areas with readily available charging stations often see higher usage rates. Conversely, limited charging options can restrict scooter availability and lead to wasted trips, ultimately affecting overall efficiency. This highlights the need for strategic placement of charging stations to optimize the practical and environmental viability of dockless scooters.
Opportunities for Improving User Behavior
Several strategies can encourage more sustainable user behavior. Promoting short, local trips minimizes the energy consumed per ride. Encouraging users to utilize scooters for errands and shorter commutes instead of longer car trips could reduce reliance on other, more emission-intensive vehicles. Educational campaigns about efficient scooter operation and charging habits can improve overall sustainability.
Different Ways Users Interact with Scooters and Environmental Impact
User interactions with scooters range from casual recreational use to more frequent commuting. A user who uses the scooter for daily errands or short commutes will likely have a lower carbon footprint than a user who uses the scooter primarily for recreational rides spanning several kilometers. Understanding these distinctions is critical for assessing the environmental impact associated with each type of use case.
Table of User Behavior Patterns and Carbon Footprint
| User Behavior Pattern | Description | Estimated Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e per trip) |
|---|---|---|
| Short Trips (local errands, < 5 km) | Frequent use for short, local trips within a few kilometers. | 0.1 – 0.5 |
| Medium Trips (commuting, 5-10 km) | Used for short commutes or errands, distances between 5 and 10 km. | 0.5 – 1.0 |
| Longer Trips (recreational, > 10 km) | Primarily for recreational rides, often exceeding 10 km. | 1.0 – 2.0 |
| Inefficient Charging | Charging scooters when not needed or at inefficient charging stations. | Increase in footprint due to wasted energy. |
Note: The carbon footprint estimates are approximations and can vary based on factors like scooter model, riding speed, terrain, and charging efficiency.
End-of-Life Considerations
The electric scooter revolution has brought a new mode of transportation, but like all technologies, it presents a unique set of environmental challenges at the end of its useful life. Proper disposal and recycling of these devices are crucial to minimizing the environmental impact. This section delves into the critical aspects of end-of-life management for electric scooters, focusing on responsible recycling and disposal procedures.Proper end-of-life management is not just about minimizing environmental harm, but also about ensuring responsible resource management.
Recycling and disposal procedures for electric scooters must consider the complex composition of these vehicles and their potential for environmental harm if not handled correctly.
Recycling and Disposal Procedures
Recycling and disposal procedures for electric scooters are multifaceted, requiring a careful approach to ensure the safe and efficient handling of materials. Battery components, particularly lithium-ion batteries, require specialized handling due to their potential for fire hazards and environmental contamination. Improper disposal can lead to significant environmental and safety issues.
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Potential Environmental Impact of End-of-Life Components
The environmental impact of end-of-life electric scooter components varies significantly based on the materials used and the proper handling procedures. Lithium-ion batteries, for instance, contain hazardous materials if not handled carefully during recycling and disposal. Improper disposal of these batteries can lead to soil and water contamination. The disposal of plastics, metals, and other materials also needs careful consideration to minimize environmental damage.
Methods for Improving Recyclability of Electric Scooter Parts
Improving the recyclability of electric scooter parts requires a multi-pronged approach. One key aspect is the design of scooters with recyclable components in mind. Using readily recyclable materials in the manufacturing process is crucial. Standardization of parts across different scooter models can also streamline the recycling process. Encouraging the use of readily recyclable materials during the manufacturing phase can greatly increase the potential for successful recycling efforts at the end of a scooter’s life.
Promoting the use of sustainable materials in manufacturing is another significant step.
Dismantling and Separating Materials
A detailed process for dismantling and separating materials from an electric scooter is essential for successful recycling. This process involves careful removal of batteries, motors, and other components. Specialized equipment and trained personnel are often required for the safe handling of batteries and other potentially hazardous materials. Proper identification and separation of materials are critical to ensure efficient recycling and avoid contamination.
The process should prioritize the preservation of the materials for reuse and recycling.
Disposal Options for Electric Scooters
| Disposal Option | Description | Environmental Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Recycling Centers | Designated facilities for processing and recycling materials. | Minimizes landfill waste, recovers valuable resources. |
| Landfills | Traditional disposal method, often not ideal for e-scooters. | Generates significant landfill waste, potential for material leaching. |
| Specialized Recycling Facilities | Facilities equipped to handle batteries and other hazardous materials. | Ensures safe and efficient recycling of batteries and other critical components. |
| Secure Storage/Collection | Controlled storage and collection points for components awaiting recycling. | Minimizes potential hazards during transit, facilitates proper handling. |
Alternative Power Sources and Technologies
Electric scooters are rapidly gaining popularity, but their environmental impact remains a concern. Moving beyond traditional lithium-ion batteries is crucial for minimizing the carbon footprint of these vehicles throughout their lifecycle. Exploring alternative power sources and advanced technologies holds the key to creating a more sustainable future for personal transportation.
Potential for Alternative Energy Sources
The current reliance on lithium-ion batteries in electric scooters has limitations, including the extraction of raw materials, the manufacturing process, and the disposal of batteries. Exploring alternative energy sources, such as solar power, hydrogen fuel cells, and even kinetic energy recovery systems, could significantly reduce the environmental burden. For instance, integrating solar panels into the scooter’s design could supplement or even replace the need for traditional battery packs, providing a renewable energy source during operation.
Emerging Technologies
Several promising technologies are emerging that could revolutionize the electric scooter industry. These include advancements in battery chemistry, such as solid-state batteries, which offer improved safety and energy density compared to traditional lithium-ion. Additionally, the development of more efficient motors and power electronics is constantly improving energy conversion and reducing energy loss. These innovations, while still in the development phase, hold great promise for creating a greener and more efficient form of personal transportation.
Current State of Battery Technology and its Impact
The current state of battery technology, predominantly lithium-ion, plays a significant role in the carbon footprint of electric scooters. The extraction of lithium and other raw materials from the earth can have a substantial environmental impact. Furthermore, the manufacturing process of lithium-ion batteries involves energy-intensive procedures, leading to emissions. Recycling programs and sustainable supply chains are critical to mitigating the negative environmental consequences.
The life cycle analysis of batteries should encompass their entire journey, from mining to disposal, to accurately assess their impact.
Pros and Cons of Different Battery Types
Different battery types offer various advantages and disadvantages for electric scooters. The choice of battery technology depends on factors such as cost, performance, safety, and environmental impact.
Comparison of Battery Types
| Battery Type | Pros | Cons |
|---|---|---|
| Lithium-ion | High energy density, relatively light weight, good performance | Environmental concerns regarding mining, manufacturing, and disposal; potential for thermal runaway; limited lifespan; dependence on raw materials |
| Solid-state | Potentially higher energy density, improved safety (reduced risk of thermal runaway), longer lifespan | Higher cost, still under development, limited availability |
| Sodium-ion | Potentially lower cost, abundant raw materials, improved safety compared to lithium-ion | Lower energy density compared to lithium-ion, potentially longer charging times |
| Lead-acid | Relatively inexpensive, readily available, mature technology | Lower energy density, heavier weight, shorter lifespan, less efficient than lithium-ion |
Policy and Regulatory Frameworks
The proliferation of electric scooters, particularly dockless models, has outpaced the development of consistent and comprehensive regulatory frameworks across various regions. This necessitates a proactive approach to policy-making to address safety, environmental impact, and urban planning considerations. Governments must establish clear guidelines to ensure responsible use and minimize potential negative consequences.Existing regulations vary widely, reflecting differing priorities and concerns in different localities.
Some regions prioritize safety by mandating helmet use and speed limits, while others focus on environmental considerations, like restricting operating hours or areas. This lack of standardization creates challenges for both users and operators, potentially hindering the widespread adoption of electric scooters as a sustainable transportation option.
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Existing Policies and Regulations
Different regions have implemented various policies and regulations concerning electric scooter use. These regulations often address issues like licensing requirements for operators, permissible speeds, designated use areas, and safety protocols for both riders and pedestrians. For instance, some jurisdictions have imposed restrictions on scooter operation in pedestrian zones or near schools, aiming to minimize safety risks.
Potential Strategies for Sustainable Practices
Strategies to encourage sustainable practices for electric scooter use encompass incentives for environmentally friendly models and usage patterns. Promoting the adoption of electric scooters with high energy efficiency ratings, along with subsidies for charging infrastructure, can incentivize environmentally conscious choices. Furthermore, promoting shared-scooter systems that prioritize routes with lower carbon emissions, or incentivizing short-distance travel by scooter over automobile travel can contribute to a more sustainable transportation landscape.
Government Role in Promoting Environmentally Friendly Services
Governments play a pivotal role in facilitating environmentally friendly dockless scooter services. By establishing clear guidelines for emission standards, encouraging the development of charging infrastructure, and promoting responsible scooter usage through public awareness campaigns, governments can cultivate a more sustainable urban mobility ecosystem. This includes supporting the creation of dedicated scooter lanes or parking areas, as well as ensuring the integration of scooter services with public transportation networks.
Influence of Regulations on Design and Manufacturing
Regulations significantly influence the design and manufacturing of electric scooters. Mandates for safety features, like stronger braking systems or improved visibility components, can drive innovation in scooter design. Regulations concerning battery capacity, charging protocols, and material composition for scooter components can influence the development of environmentally responsible manufacturing processes.
Comparison of Regulations Across Regions
| Region | Helmet Use Mandate | Speed Limits | Designated Use Areas | Licensing Requirements |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| North America (Example: California) | Generally mandatory | Varying, often based on specific areas | Specific areas/zones designated | May require permits for operators |
| Europe (Example: Netherlands) | Often mandatory | Usually stricter limits | May have dedicated paths or restrictions | Often more stringent licensing for operators |
| Asia (Example: China) | Varying | Often lower limits | Restrictions on specific areas/zones | Varying licensing, depending on the region |
This table illustrates the wide variation in regulatory frameworks across different regions. Note that these are examples and specific regulations can vary significantly within each region. The table highlights the differences in approaches to safety, operational controls, and licensing procedures.
Impact on Existing Transportation Systems
Electric scooters, particularly dockless models, are rapidly changing the urban landscape, impacting existing transportation systems in multifaceted ways. Their accessibility and convenience are undeniable draws, but their introduction also presents challenges and opportunities for the broader transportation ecosystem. This section delves into the comparative analysis of electric scooters with other personal transport methods, their influence on public transport usage, and the potential for sustainable transportation, while examining their impact on traffic patterns.
Comparison with Other Personal Transportation
Electric scooters offer a unique blend of speed, maneuverability, and affordability compared to other personal transportation options. They are significantly faster than walking, but slower than cycling or motorized vehicles. Their compact size allows for easy navigation in crowded urban areas, making them a viable alternative to cars for short commutes or errands. However, their limited range and lack of safety features like seat belts or windshields contrast with options like motorcycles or bicycles.
Impact on Public Transportation Usage
The emergence of dockless electric scooters has sparked debate regarding their effect on public transportation usage. While some users might choose scooters for short trips, potentially reducing reliance on public transit, others may find scooters insufficient for longer journeys or in inclement weather. Ultimately, the impact on public transit is likely to be nuanced, varying by city, user demographics, and the specific public transport system in place.
Potential for Sustainable Transportation
Electric scooters, by nature, offer a lower carbon footprint compared to gasoline-powered vehicles. This reduced emissions profile makes them a potential component of a more sustainable transportation strategy. However, the environmental impact also depends on the scooter’s manufacturing process, battery life-cycle, and end-of-life disposal. A comprehensive life-cycle analysis is essential to fully assess their contribution to sustainability.
Impact on Traffic Patterns and Congestion
The introduction of dockless electric scooters can lead to both positive and negative changes in traffic patterns. Increased competition for road space with traditional vehicles might contribute to congestion, particularly during peak hours. Conversely, scooters could potentially reduce traffic by allowing individuals to navigate congested areas more efficiently. The overall impact on traffic flow is a complex interplay of numerous variables.
Comparative Environmental Impact
| Transportation Mode | Environmental Impact (Approximate Carbon Emissions per Trip) | Comments |
|---|---|---|
| Electric Scooter | Low (Dependent on manufacturing and battery life-cycle) | Lower emissions compared to gasoline-powered vehicles, but not necessarily zero. |
| Bicycle | Very Low | Typically the most environmentally friendly option, relying on human power. |
| Motorcycle | Medium (Dependent on engine type and fuel efficiency) | Potentially higher emissions than electric scooters, but still lower than cars. |
| Car | High | Significantly higher emissions due to combustion engine. |
| Public Transit (Bus/Train) | Moderate (Dependent on vehicle type and efficiency) | Emissions per passenger are typically lower than private vehicles. |
Note: Carbon emissions figures are approximate and can vary based on factors such as vehicle type, driving conditions, and route.
Last Point
In conclusion, scooters electric dockless carbon emissions study life cycle analysis reveals a complex picture of environmental impact. While electric scooters offer a potential alternative to fossil fuel-powered vehicles, their life cycle assessment highlights areas for improvement, particularly in manufacturing, user behavior, and end-of-life management. This study emphasizes the need for further research and development in areas like alternative energy sources and sustainable design to minimize the environmental footprint of dockless scooters and ensure their long-term sustainability.
